| A snap shot view of THE HISTORY OF CHINA Author: YK Kwan |
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CONTENTS Chapter 1 Pre-historic periods: Paleolithic, Neolithic periods and the First Kings 舊, 新 石 器 時 代 及 炎,黃,堯,舜,禹帝 Chapter 2 Xia, Shang and Zhou 夏 商 周 Chapter 3 Spring & Autumn and Warring States periods春秋戰國 Chapter 4 Qin and Han 秦 漢 Chapter 5 Wei, Jin and the North-South dynasties 魏晉南北朝 Chapter 6 Sui and Tang periods 隋 唐 Chapter 7 Five dynasties and Ten countries 五代十國 Chapter 8 Song, Liao and Jin 兩宋, 遼, 金 Chapter 9 Yuan 元 Chapter 10 Ming dynasty 明 Chapter 11 Qing dynasty 清 Chapter 12 Republic of China 中 華 民 國 (1912 – 1949) Chapter One Pre-historic China and the First Kings Paleolithic China – Neolithic China – The First Kings— Yan Di 炎帝 — Huang Di 黄帝— Yao Di 堯帝— Shun Di 舜帝— Yu Di 禹帝 Paleolithic China 舊石器時代的中國 (c.1.7million-10,000 years ago) Evidence of the habitation of early humans in China could be dated as far back as 1.7 million years ago. In human evolution terms, they were of the genus homo erectus, commonly believed to be the ancestors of our present human genus, homo sapiens (Latin: “man the wise”). It was the accidental finding of fossils of teeth near Yuanmau 元謀 in Yunan 雲南 in 1965, which were identified and put the earliest homo erectus in China back by almost one million years from the dating of the “Peking Man” discovered in the 1920’s in Zhoukoudian 周口店 near Beijing (then Beiping 北平). We know very little about this early Yuanmau Man 元謀人 except that they used stone tools and possibly mastered the use of fire. They could look ape- like but the stance and gait of walking was upright, and would therefore be the earliest kind of homo erectus. Paleolithic Civilizations Sites of other earliest prehistoric habitation of humans in China were generally found along the great rivers of China, the Huang He 黄河, and Chang Jiang 長江 (Yangtze river), flowing from the high plateaus and mountains in the west to the coast in the east. Some of the most famous names in these locations are: Lantian Man 藍田人 (c.800,000 – 650,000 years ago) Peking Man 北京人 (c.700,000- 200,000 years ago), Dingcun Man 丁村人 (c. 210,000 - 80,000 years ago). And in the Neolithic period 新石器時代, there was Hemudu civilization 河姆渡文化 which was south of Chang Jiang 長江 (c.7,000-5,500 years ago); and Yangshao civilization 仰韶文化 which was north of Huang He 黄河 (c. 6,000 years ago). The Peking Man Of all these, the Peking Man was the most world famous. Since the ground- breaking theory of human evolution published by Darwin in the 1830’s, human evolution had been the hottest topic in the world of science and one of the most controversial issues in the Christian religion. Fossils of both homo erectus and homo sapiens species were discovered in Africa, Europe, the Middle East and South East Asia (notably, the Java Man), but there was no evidence at all on how the specie of “erectus” became “sapiens”. In short, there was almost a million years of “evolution” from the “Ape” to the “Man” which had not been accounted for; and this lack of evidence was popularly known as the “missing link” at the beginning of last century. It was only in 1927 that in a cave in Zhoukoudian 周口店, near Peking, Davidson Black, a Canadian archeologist unearthed one single tooth which miraculously fitted the “Ape-man” belonging to the missing link. Subsequent excavations uncovered more teeth and 14 skull caps and a lot of fragmented bone fossils, all these were later known as the category of the Peking Man. The importance of this discovery was self-evident since this specie was post Java Man and provided a concrete proof of the evolution of humankind from “homo erectus” to “homo sapiens”. It filled in the range between 900,000 to 130,000 years ago. The link had been closed and Darwin’s theory on human evolution was proved beyond doubt a full century after its formulation. These precious original fossil items were examined in the Peking Union Medical College but were lost in a mixture of bad fortune and mystery. In 1937, when Peking was under imminent threat of Japanese invasion, these fossils were packed up without any identification and secretly smuggled out of Peking with USA as their final destination. They were under the escort of US marines. However, the truck was stopped before it reached the nearest port by the Japanese army which were already stationed in China to “guard” the security of their railway invested by the Manchurian Railway Corporation. Both Chinese and American personnel were detained and taken away and the whereabouts of the “goods” in the truck was unknown. War on Peking erupted soon afterwards and the Peking Man fossils could not be traced. Were they discarded by the roadside as worthless bones or secretly transported to Japan for their priceless scientific value was a question unanswered even today. Studies which continued after the war could only be conducted on plaster casts and other subsequent finds. Neolithic China 新石器時代的中國 (c. 10,000- 4,000 years ago) This period was marked by the use of more refined stone tools, the regular use of fire and the invention of pottery wares. Homo sapiens gradually changed from quintessential hunters to localized herdsmen and agricultural production became the main theme. Groups in greater numbers developed into communities. One of the special features of this new period was the beginning of religious worship and evidence of burial rituals. Hemudu civilization 河姆渡文化 was so named because it was located on the south bank of Hangzhou estuary 杭州灣, near Hemudu 河姆渡 in Zhejiang 浙江 and in Zhoushan Archipelago 舟山群島. The houses were made of wooden structure with thatched roof and walls and a special feature was that they were elevated on stilts. There was evidence of shoulder bones of buffalos used for cultivation and pottery for cooking wares. It was the oldest known civilization with watered rice plantations. Yangshao civilization 仰韶文化 was named after its first finding in 1921 in Henan 河南 near the village of Yangshao. There are now over a thousand sites of the same period and exhaustive excavations were made in Banpo 半 坡 near Xi’an 西安, and in Lintung 臨潼, Baoji 寶雞, Luoyang 洛陽, and Zhengzhou 鄭州 etc. These civilizations were marked with evidence of an agricultural style of living, its members having fixed habitats, generally in small communities and the typical Banpo 半坡 site was surrounded by a protective moat or trench of over two meters wide, three meters deep and extended for over a hundred meters. The people grew crops of millet and used stone or pottery knives and they had bows and arrows and spears for hunting. There were also hooks and tridents for fishing. Pottery wares varied in size and shape, and were decorated with patterns and drawings some of which were glazed. An unusual feature in those wares was the design of an outer pot for holding water and an inner pot with holes perforating the bottom, allowing steam to go through. In essence, a steaming device invented 6000 years before our modern home electrical appliances. Utensils for wine brewing during this period were also uncovered. This roughly corresponds with the Egyptians brewing beer over 5000 years ago. The First Kings of China (c. 2600 BC — c. 2070 BC) Yan Di 炎帝 The first legendary king of China was Yan-Di 炎帝 (c. 2600 B.C.) believed to be so called because of his expert use of fire 火. However, he was more popularly known as Shen-nong Shi 神農氏 and remembered as the “Father of Herbs” who had tasted the myriad species of herbs to determine their healing effects. He was followed by another great king called Huang Di 黄 帝. When modern Chinese describe themselves as “descendants of Yan and Huang” 炎黄子孫, we are referring to these two legendary kings, Yan Di 炎 帝 and Huang Di 黄帝. Huang Di 黄帝 Huang Di黄帝 was said to be the earliest known common ruler of central China. His surname was Ji 姬, and because he was born near a place called Xuanyuan 軒轅, he was also known as Xuanyuan Huang Di 軒轅黄帝. In the most ancient battlefield in China, Zhuolu 涿鹿 in Hebei 河北 (about 120 Km north-west of present day Beijing 北京), Huang Di defeated a notorious tribal leader Chiyou 蚩尤 and was thereafter nominated as king of all the tribes. He commissioned his minister Cangjie 倉頡 to devise a system of logographic writing with pictorial origins and the first written Chinese language thus came into being. An almanac to assist farming and cultivation was introduced and up to now it is still referred to as Huang’s Calendar, 黄曆. His observations and discussions with his ministers regarding Chinese medicine were recorded and it is still today a classical text for study in that field. It was entitled Huang Di Neijing, 黄帝內經. From that text, acupuncture 針炙 was obviously in general practice and well documented during that period. Measurements of weights and lengths were standardized, so were the five basic musical notes 定五音. (Music thus recreated, notably copper bells, was for thousands of years used only on state occasions and for official rituals. That was why a State Temple was called Bell Temple, 鐘廟.) People were taught the ways of constructing houses, building boats and carriages. The queen of Huang Di, Leizu 嫘祖 was said to be a master in weaving and silkworm raising. Such arts were handed down from generation to generation. Yao Di 堯 帝 The next popular King of China was a descendant of Huang Di but already about 400 years after him. He was Yao Di, 堯帝 (c.2200 BC). His capital was at Pingyang 平陽, in today’s Shanxi Province 山西. It was believed that his reign lasted for almost 100 years. Yao Di was called Fang-xun 放 勳 and he succeeded his elder brother Zhi 摯 who died on the throne but ruled without notable merits. Yao was described in Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 Shi-ji 史記 as a wise and virtuous person. He was rich but not arrogant, eminent but not lazy-bodied. He wore a golden crown, donned a black scholar’s dress, and rode in a red carriage drawn by white horses. His officials watched meticulously the shadow of the sun and when the day was the longest and Mars 火星 appeared due south in the evening, this was marked as summer solstice 夏至. The year was recognized as consisting of 366 days and additions and subtractions were made in the days of an intercalary month to adjust any discrepancy. When Yao Di 堯 was on the throne for 70 years he asked his ministers to suggest someone to succeed him. All of them named a civilian called Yu Shun 虞舜. They said, “Shun is the son of a blind man who is never an upright person, his mother never talks sense, his younger brother is arrogant and acts with impropriety. Yet he can keep his family harmonious and acts with filial duty and beyond reproach.” Yao said, “Let me give him a try.” Shun Di 舜 帝 Shun 舜 was about 30 at the time and only a commoner with no official post at all. His father was a blind man. After Shun’s mother died, His father had a step-wife and his brother Xiang 象 was born. Xiang was a spoiled child and he grew up to be an arrogant and avaricious young man. His father loved his younger son and always wanted to kill Shun. Shun had been a farmer, fisherman, potter and a petty tradesman at markets. Shun’s 舜 father once asked him to patch up the roof of his barn and when he was up on the roof, his father set fire to the barn. Shun was only able to escape by jumping down holding two straw hats. Later his father told him to dig a well. Shun knew it was another evil scheme and he dug a small tunnel by the side for escape. When Shun was deep down in the well, his father and Xiang poured down soil to fill up the well. Shun however, escaped through the side-tunnel. Xiang and his father were happy with what they did and thought Shun 舜 must be dead this time. Xiang 象 said to his father,“ Shun’s wives are mine, his zither is mine. His cattle and barn are yours.” Xiang went to Shun’s chamber and played his zither. Shun suddenly appeared and Xiang was totally surprised and displeased. He said, “At the moment I am missing you a lot.” Shun replied, “If this is so, it is very kind of you.” Earlier, Yao Di 堯帝 married two of his daughters to Shun and observed closely how he treated his wives. Shun 舜 was able to manage the two princesses to live with him in his humble abode with condescendence but free from complaints. Yao Di 堯帝 was pleased. He gave Shun 舜 official duties, which he performed to perfection. Shun 舜 was asked to receive emissaries from all quarters of the country in the capital at the same time and the result was everybody was being taken care of. Seeing this, all officials and guests from far off places had a sense of respect for him. After twenty years, Yao called Shun 舜 to his audience and said, “Your planning is meticulous. What you promised you can deliver. I have watched you closely. It is time for you now to take over the throne.” Thereupon, in the ancestry temple, Yao gave Shun his mandate to act as King and retired to his home to watch the will of Heaven as to his successor. Shun 舜toured the four boundaries of the country under his charge and worshipped Heaven and Earth. The country was divided into twelve prefectures and they were all well governed. Eight years later Yao died and the whole country was in mourning. Music of any kind was not played for three years. After three years, as a token to pass the kingship back to Yao’s son Dan-zhu 丹朱, Shun 舜 retreated to the south. However, the nobility and the litigants did not go to Dan-zhu in the capital but they went to Shun 舜, whereupon Shun said, “Is this not Heaven’s will?” He returned to the capital and became Shun Di 舜帝 (c.2250 BC). At that time he was 61. He ruled for 39 more years and when he was touring the south, he died near the south bank of Chang Jiang 長江 and was buried there, a place which is now called Lingling, 零陵. Xia-yu 夏禹 During Yao Di’s 堯帝 reign, flood was the biggest problem of China. Yao 堯 asked his ministers if there was anyone who could manage the problem. The four chief ministers nominated Gun 鲧, but after nine years nothing was achieved. Then Yao Di 堯帝 got Shun 舜 and promoted him as his deputy. Shun 舜 found that Gun 鲧 was not up to his job and exiled him to Yushan 羽山 where he died. Shun 舜 used Guan’s son, Yu 禹, who was more capable, to carry on with the job. Yu 禹 was in fact the grandson of the grandson 玄孫 of Huang Di 黄帝. Yu was given the assignment to resolve the flooding problem. He applied his heart and soul to his task. He surveyed the topology of the mountains, valleys, rivers and plains, carrying with him surveying instruments wherever he went. He worked outdoors for thirteen years and it was said that on many occasions he passed his home but did not stop for a visit. (三過其門而不入). He carried on with his work the fourth day after his marriage and had no opportunity to raise and teach his son Qi 啓 after he was born. Because of Yu’s 禹 work on the rivers, tributaries and canals, he was designated heir to the throne by Shun Di 舜帝. Seventeen years after that Shun Di 舜帝 died and Yu 禹 observed the mandatory three-year mourning. He retreated to his hometown of Yang City 陽城, leaving the capital to Shun Di’s son Shang-jun 商均. The feudal lords however, all sought audience with Yu instead with Shang-jun. Yu 禹 returned to the capital to take the throne and founded the new empire of Xia 夏 (c. 2070 BC). Events in other parts of the World during comparative period (Pre-historic – 2070BC) BC 40,000 Last Ice Age in Europe, settlement of Cro-Magnon Man 20,000 Cave paintings in France 7,000 Walled settlement in Jericho 6,000 Neolithic period in Europe 5,000 Sea level rose to divide Britain from Europe 4,200 First date in Egyptian calendar 3,760 Earliest date in Jewish calendar 3,100 First Egyptian dynasty 3,000 Phoenicians in eastern Mediterranean coast 2,780 First pyramid built in Egypt 2,500 Civilization in Indus valley, India 2,500 Knossos founded by Minoans in Crete 2,000 Bronze Age in Europe Chapter Two Xia, Shang & Zhou Xia Dynasty 夏朝 (c. 2070 BC — c. 1766 BC) — Shang Dynasty 商朝 (c. 1600 BC – 1046 BC) — Zhou Dynasty 周朝 (c. 1045 BC — 221 BC) Xia Dynasty 夏朝 (c.2070 BC — c. 1766 BC) Before the death of Yu Di, 禹帝, it was said that he appointed Bo-yi 伯益 as his successor. After Yu’s death, Bo-yi, in observation of the tradition, left the throne to Yu’s son Qi 啓. In contrast to the previous custom of “shanrang” 禪讓, the feudal lords all favoured Qi啓 and sought his audience instead of Bo-yi伯益. Qi啓, therefore, took the throne and started the long history of hereditary succession in the history of China. Historians called this reign Xia Dynasty 夏朝 which lasted for about 430 years. Xia 夏 was the first prototype dynasty in China with a complete government hierarchy. There was an official for each and every public function, all occupied by nobles of the king’s family. Evidence shows that it was as early as Xia that human (mostly slaves) and animals were sacrificed during burial rituals of kings and nobles. These barbaric rituals continued in the next dynasty, Shang 商; and seemed to have stopped in the more civilized dynasty of Zhou 周. The Empire of Xia 夏 was interrupted for about forty years in the reign of its 4th king, Xiang 相. The leader Hou-yi, 后羿 of a tribe called Youqiong Shi有窮氏 attacked the capital and successfully ousted the King of Xia who became a fugitive in exile. It was only until the time of his son, Shao-kang 少康 that the Xia Dynasty was able to restore its bloodline to the throne, after a period of forty odd years in civil war. A new refined black pottery 黑陶 emerged during this period, which was of better quality than the primitive grazed pottery. This culture spread almost throughout China except in the remote regions. It is believed that it was made on the wheel, which was at the time an advanced invention. Handwriting was more developed now since its legendary introduction by Huang Di, which was basically pictorial or logographic in nature. However, what was left in archaeological finds was only inscriptions on animal bones and tortoise shells for oracular divination 甲骨文 performed by the state, mainly dating from the next dynasty, Shang. The 16th and the last king of Xia 夏was the infamous Xia Jie, 夏桀. He was in every respect a despot and was feared by his subjects, ministers and neighbouring states. A particularly developed state to the east was Shang 商 and its leader was Tang 湯. He raised an army and attacked Jie at his capital Anyi 安邑. Jie was deserted by his nobles and allies and he retreated his army to Mingtiao 鳴條, where it was routed. Jie 桀 died while fleeing from the battlefield and it was about 1766 BC, which marked the end of this first Dynasty of China. This battle was fought near the banks of Huang He 黄河, in the southern part of today’s Shanxi 山西 Province. Shang Dynasty 商朝 (c. 1600 BC – 1046 BC) Shang 商 started as a subordinate satellite tribe 附庸 to Xia 夏. When it was obvious that the administration of Xia Jie 夏桀 was deserted by its feudal lords and people, Tang 湯 led the Shang army to overthrow a dying empire. Tang was assisted by able ministers and one of them was the renowned Yi-yin 伊尹. He was a man of virtuous disposition, an able administrator, a shrewd military strategist and an accomplished politician. Shang Dynasty had a two-tier succession system which was adopted occasionally by subsequent dynasties. Of its 31 kings, some were succeeded by younger brothers 兄終弟及 and the others by sons. Its capital was moved no less than four times since establishing in Bo 亳, near today’s Luoyang 洛陽 and later to Yin 殷, which is today’s Anyang 安陽 in Henan 河南 bordering on Hebei 河北 and finally to Chaoge 朝歌. Because of its capital in Yin, the term Shang 商 and Yin 殷 are interchangeable by historians and they refer to the same dynasty. The old city of Yin殷 produced rich archaeological finds today and was estimated to occupy over 15 square miles in its walled city in its haydays. Shang was an advanced agricultural society believed to be supporting a population of 5-8 million people. The government issued orders as to what and when to plant crops, and it had a calendar system with a 360-day year of 12 months of 30 days each. They observed that the moon’s orbit around the Earth was 30 days and in Chinese writing, moon 月and month 月 are still the same character. The calendar took cognizance of both lunar and solar cycles; and, when it became necessary to adjust the lunar year to the solar year, an intercalary month would be added. Musical instruments had evidently come down from Xia. They included clay ocarina, bells and drums of bronze, which were music for the state and the nobility. Bronze 青銅 was invented in Shang Dynasty. It was an alloy of copper and tin and the hardest metal known at the time before the discovery of iron. It was commonly used for weaponry, armory and chariots, apart from ceremonial vessels of various shapes and sizes such as cauldron 鼎 and square cauldron 方尊 (a 1000 Kg. cauldron was possible); and hardwares such as tripods, food utensils and drinking cups, notably those with elaborate elongated spouts for the kings and aristocrats. As early as Huang Di’s time黄帝 it was believed that people barter for the goods they wanted and used seashells as a token for money. In Shang, bronze was used to produce bronze shells 銅貝 and this was the earliest kind of money in the world, which was dated 3600 years ago. Because society was quite developed in Shang, apart from people who produced for themselves, a class of people specially bought and sold goods as a trade and their activities could be traced throughout the empire and in neighbouring regions, so these people were known as Shang people 商人, which name had been borrowed to mean traders or businessmen in the Chinese language. Near the archaeological remains of Yin 殷 were uncovered a dozen of royal tombs dug over ten meters underground. Assortment of artifacts and daily utensils were uncovered. Together with these, there was abundant evidence of human (believed to be slaves and workmen) and animal (horses and dogs) sacrifices. They were killed presumably as a burial ritual so that their masters were not short of any service after death and possibly to silence workers who knew the entrances to the underground tombs. Chariots used in the army and for hunting seem a Shang innovation. It is believed to be drawn by four horses and could carry 3 persons, the driver, a spearman and a bowman. The axle was made in bronze and almost twice in width as those found in the remains of Troy, which was roughly of the same period. They were used both in hunting and in war. However, there was insufficient evidence to tell whether they were used in great numbers as an army unit or merely as mobile command posts for generals and commanders. Pottery objects were abundant in Shang. Potters made fired-clay sectional molds for casting bronze utensils. Refined pottery included dishes and bowls in a white glaze 彩陶 for ceremonial and ritual use, and black pottery 黑陶 with a rich brown glaze was found in greater numbers, obviously for more common purposes. The builders of the Shang period built houses of timber over earth floors, with walls of wattle and roofs of thatch. These were basically of the same features as the houses in Xia 夏 as exhibited in the Erlitao civilization 二里頭文化 in Henan 河南. Jade carving became quite advanced in the Shang period; ceremonial jade and other articles were made such as swords 劍, halberds 戟, axes 斧, rings 環 and buckles 扣. Jade figurines included human and animal shapes, such as tiger 虎, dog 犬, fish 魚 and cicada 蟬. Many of these have been found in tombs of the period. Oracle Scripts 甲 骨 文 The earliest form of Chinese written language was found dating to the Shang period. Most of the findings came from Yin 殷, (present day Anyang 安陽). Characters such as silk 絲, mulberry 桑, scarf 巾, clothe 帛, well 井, field 田 and other oracle records were found inscribed on animal bones and tortoise-shells. They were either carved on or burnt into the bones, now known as “oracle scripts” 甲骨文. These most ancient scripts were only uncovered a century ago by accident. A scholar in literature in late Qing Dynasty fell ill and he was prescribed a Chinese medicine called “dragon bone” 龍骨, which was in fact tortoise shells. His friend found writings on the shells and some of them were identifiable but some were not. They asked the medicine shop for the source and were told it came from a village near Anyang 安陽. They knew from Shi-ji’s 史記 record that “south of River Huan 洹 水 was capital of Yin 殷墟. Their research led to continuous findings which produced half a million pieces of fragmented shells and fossils and some 3000 individual written characters were uncovered. Over half of them are now identifiable. Zhòu Wang 紂 王 The last king of Shang was Di Xin 帝辛, more commonly known as Zhòu Wang 紂王. (c.1078-1045 BC) He was even a worse king than Xia Jie 夏 傑 of the last dynasty. The reign of Zhòu 紂 developed into a notorious tyranny. Its subjects were severely exploited and they lived under oppression. Zhòu 紂 only lived in his world of hunting, drinking and womanizing and he even invented ways of torturing people as a form of entertainment. The torture of roasting people alive by tying them to a circular copper pillar with burning charcoal below (炮烙刑 ) was attributed to him. In his later years he took to the liking of a consort called Daji 妲已. She was a woman of enchanting beauty but unruly in behaviour. In the palace gardens, it was said that wine filled the ponds and meat hung from the trees, 酒池肉林. Hundreds of men and women either naked or with immodest attire were let in and engaged day and night in revelries of lust, food and wine. Zhòu 紂 and Daji 妲已 would enjoy themselves watching these licentious acts. Zhòu’s 紂 tyrannical rule had caused great dissent among his people and fear among the neighbouring states. Finally when Ji Fa姬發 (later known as Zhou Wu Wang 周武王) allied with other smaller states, led an army across Huang He黄河 to attack the capital of Shang at Chaoge 朝歌 (in present day Henan 河南), the Shang army, though said to be of over half a million men, composed partly of slaves and prisoners of war, disintegrated in the battlefield and the battle at Muye 牧野 was lost as soon as it was joined. Zhòu Wang 紂王 fled to his palace, set it on fire and died within the flames. That was the end of Shang Dynasty 商朝 after almost six centuries and the beginning of another new era in China, Zhou 周 which would last for over eight centuries (the longest dynasty in China) before harmonious order was shattered and China would plunge again into the tumult of the Warring States 戰國 period. Zhou Dynasty 周 朝 (c. 1045 BC — 221 BC) The Zhou people were relatively primitive frontiersmen of the western highlands of China, settling along Huai River 淮河from the mid-Xia era near today’s Xi’an 西安 in Shanxi山西 district. They, however, adopted the more civilized style of living of the Xia people and gained strength as a state among the other smaller tribes. When Zhòu 紂 of Xia was dissipating his country’s power in extravagant pleasures and was having troubles with his neighbours and internally nurturing resentment from his ministers, the most honest and righteous batch of whom were being executed or exiled one after another, the leader of the Zhou周 people, Ji Fa姬發thought the time was ripe. He led a league of small army from the other smaller lords and attacked the capital across the Huang He (Yellow River) 黄河 in the east. At Mengjin 孟津 the gathered army held a massive marching off ceremony and the manifesto given by Ji Fa 姬發 (later known as Zhou Wu Wang 周武 王) under oath was a piece of highly revered ancient literature, known as “Qin Shi” 秦誓. It contained the following motto: “一心一德, 立定厥功, 惟克永世”. It meant “ Let all of us with one heart and one purpose, determine to conquer our enemy and the people of the world shall live in peace thereafter.” After the decisive defeat of the Shang 商 army and the demise of Zhòu 紂, Ji Fa 姬發 took over the large domain of the toppled empire and founded the Zhou Dynasty 周朝. To honour his deceased father, Ji Chang 姬昌, a posthumous title was given to him and it was Zhou Wen Wang 周文王 (meaning: Literal King). After Ji Fa died, he was called Zhou Wu Wang 周 武王 (meaning: Martial King). This practice of ancestral title elevation has caused non-Chinese historians to wonder who founded the new dynasty and this aberration was to be repeated in similar situations. In order to maintain stability and order of the empire, Wu Wang systematically carved his domain into smaller states and divided them among his feudal lords. Feudalism in Chinese is represented by the words “feng jian” 封建. “Feng” 封 meant 封國, that is “awarding a state by imperial decree”. “Jian” 建 meant 建君, that is “establishing a king”. To this end, the prince of Shang 商, Wu Geng 武庚, son of Zhòu 紂 was awarded Yin 殷, to govern the people of the demised Shang dynasty. Wu Wang 武王 rightly estimated that his power was not enough to control the population of Shang by the millions. To watch over this remnant prince of the past dynasty, Wu-wang had three other lords of his kin establishing states around him. Descendents of former kings (Huang Di黄帝, Yao Di 堯 帝, Shun Di 舜帝, Yu Di 禹帝) were also given lordships and they had their feudal states in Ji 薊, Zhu 祝, Chen 陳, and Qi杞 respectively. This was recognized as a benevolent act of “reviving lost countries and restoring broken bloodlines”, 興滅國, 繼絕世, professing magnanimity and fairplay to the world. Two years after this Zhou victory, Wu Wang died, leaving an under-age prince Song 誦; and Wu Wang’s brother Zhou Gong Dan (Duke of Zhou) 周 公旦 was nominated as regent to the throne. Taking advantage of the situation, Wugeng 武庚 and other feudal lords who had an ambition for the throne rose in rebellion. Zhou Gong Dan 旦 led an army to suppress the uprising and it took him three years to re-conquer the Shang 商 remnant forces and other smaller states in collusion against a new empire under regency. The Zhou Empire as a result expanded to Shandong 山東 and Zhejiang 浙江 in the east, and to the bank of Chang Jiang 長江 in the south. When peace was restored, Zhou Gong 周公 proceeded with a second feudal decree, 二次封建. This time all the feudal lords were either his brothers or close relatives. The Shang people were emigrated to Luoyi 洛 邑 en mass, for close control under the new rulers. In the whole exercise, more than 70 states were created. After 7 years, Zhou Gong re-established good order to the empire and resigned his regency when his nephew Song 誦 came to age, who was known as Cheng Wang 成王. These early kings of Zhou had a high place in the minds of rulers and historians of later centuries, regarded as icons of kings and sages. Collectively they were referred to as “Three Kings and Five Dis” 三王五 帝. In chronological order, they were Huang Di黄帝, Yao Di 堯帝, Shun Di 舜帝, Yu Di 禹帝, Tang Di 湯帝, Wen Wang 文王, Wu Wang 武王 and Zhou Gong 周公. The “Zhou Rituals” 周禮 was a national system devised by Zhou Gong 周 公 for the administration of the empire in terms of state ancestral worship, religion, music, government administration, ritualistic order and the behavioral appearance and ethics of the classes (under five levels: Son of Heaven 天子 [the King]; feudal lords 諸侯; high officials 卿, 大夫; officials “shi” 士; and commoners 平民 or 布衣). The book “Classic of Rituals ” 禮記 (Li-ji) is one of the oldest classics in Chinese literature. Confucius born in the Eastern Zhou era (C.500 BC) was an ardent believer in Zhou Gong’s 周公 rituals and commented once on the number of dancers in the court of one of the lords and high officials, saying, “八脩舞于庭, 是 可忍也, 熟不可忍也?” “脩” was one row of eight dancers. It was Zhou ritual 周禮 that only the King can entertain with 8 rows of dancers, making a troupe of 64. What Confucius was criticizing was that if 8 rows of dancers were allowed to dance in one’s court and that was tolerated, what could not be tolerated? The rights and obligations of these classes were hereditary in favour of the oldest male descendants. Since the making of the two feudal decrees by Wu- wang and Zhou Gong, no more feudal lords were created. However, as succession of the lordships was hereditary in practice, it became a matter of formality for the King to confirm the appointments of heirs in succession. As the economic and military powers of some of the feudal lords grew in the centuries that followed, the King of Zhou had no way to stop them from their ambitions and the “ritual” guidelines were unable to contain them, leading to the loss of power and influence of the central Zhou government on the feudal states. In terms of literature, very few of the texts written in early Zhou survived, mainly due to the reason that works written on silk and wood or bamboo pieces with brush and ink were not durable in term of centuries and few of them were in existence except notably the Five Classics 五經 left by popular copying. They are: Classic of Yi (Yi-jing) 易經, Classic of Writings (Shu-jing) 書經, Classic of Odes 詩經, The Spring and Autumn Annuals 春秋 and the Classic of Rituals 禮記. Together with the Four Books 四書 compiled by the disciples of Confucius, these have been the orthodox classics of the Chinese literature for many generations, revered as “Four Books and Five Classics” 四書五經. When the Zhou Dynasty passed 254 years, onto the 13th king, its history came to a watershed. It marked its decline from which Zhou never recovered. It began with You Wang 幽王 striping the Queen, Shen 申后 and the crown prince of their royal titles because he was madly fond of a consort called Baosi 褒姒 and wanted to name her son Bofu as crwon prince. Ministers advised against it but they were ignored by You Wang. Baosi 褒姒 was said to be enchantingly beautiful but she rarely smiled. In order to make her smile, You Wang 幽王 had tried every means but in vain. The legend was that one day the King and his consort were drinking in a pavilion in the capital and You Wang had an idea. In those days there were beacon towers in strategic places, which would be lit if there was an alert of any danger to the capital and help was required from the feudal lords. You Wang ordered that the beacons be lit. Within a matter of hours, the neighboring feudal lords, gravely concerned, arrived post-haste with their cavalry and chariots. They would not believe their eyes to find the King and Baosi 褒姒 were having drinks leisurely on top of a pavilion. The royal consort was however, greatly amused, seeing thousands of exhausted men hurrying to the capital in full armour for nothing more than a sham alarm. She smiled and laughed in an uncontrollable manner. You Wang was greatly pleased that he finally found something that would make Baosi 褒姒 laugh. This was historically known as 烽火戲諸侯 and because of its dramatic nature, this scene continues to be enacted in Chinese operas nowadays. In the 11th year of You Wang’s 幽王 rule, Marquis Shen 申侯, brother of the disgraced Queen, conspired with a foreign tribe Quanrong 犬戎 and set upon the capital Haojing 鎬京 with little warning. The beacons towers were lit once again but as could be expected, no feudal lords were prepared to mobilize their army to the king’s whim. You Wang was killed when the capital fell and it was sacked and largely destroyed. That was 771 BC, which marked the demise of the “Western” Zhou era. Because when the revived crown prince took the throne (later known as Ping Wang 平王), in order to avoid the threat of Quanrong 犬戎, he moved the capital to Luoyi 洛邑 (later known as Luoyang 洛陽), to the east of Haojing 鎬京. Therefore, historians referred to this period as Eastern Zhou 東周 and the previous one Western Zhou 西周. Eastern Zhou is historically divided into two periods, Spring and Autumn Era 春秋 (770-477BC) and Warring States Era 戰國 (476-221BC) which is the subject matter of the next Chapter. Events in other parts of the World during comparative period (2070 BC - 770 BC) BC 2150 Aryans invaded Indus Valley 1830 First dynasty of Bablylon 1570 New Kingdom in Egypt 1400 Knosses destroyed 1361 Accession of Tutankhamun in Egypt 1304 Accession of Remeses in Egypt 1232 Israelites in Canaan 1193 Troy destroyed by Greeks 1020 Saul, King of Israel 994 King David conquered Jerusalem 814 Carthage founded by Phoenicians 776 First Olympic Games in Greece Chapter Three Eastern Zhōu Eastern Zhōu 東 周 — Spring and Autumn Era 春 秋 時 代 (770–477 BC) — Warring States Era 戰 國 時 代 (476 – 221 BC) Eastern Zhou 東周 — Spring and Autumn Era 春秋時代 (770–477 BC) Since Zhou Ping Wang 周平王 moved the capital to Luoyi 洛邑 (later known as Luoyang 洛陽), to the east of Haojing 鎬京, that period of history of Zhou dynasty is known as Eastern Zhou 東周 and the beginning of the Spring and Autumn Era 春秋時代. The name of this era was borrowed from the title of a book complied by Kong Zi 孔子 (Latin version, Confucius). It was the historical record of the State of Lu 魯國史書 under the title 春秋 (Spring and Autumn Annuals), which covered the state’s history from 722 BC to 481 BC, a total of 242 years. Since Ping Wang 平王 established in the new capital, there was a marked decline in the power of the central government, both nominal and in practice. There were quite a number of reasons for it. First, before Ping Wang sat on the throne, there was another prince Yu-chen 余臣 who was supported by some lords and contested for the same kingship. It was a time when there were two kings for Zhou Dynasty, 二王并立. Supported by more powerful feudal lords of Zheng 鄭, Qin 秦, Jin 晉 etc., Ping Wang was successful in the end and prince Yu-chen was killed in the civil war. It was evident that Ping Wang had the crown put on him by the feudal lords 諸 侯 and was therefore not in a position to command them. On the other hand, the more powerful feudal lords had been expanding their territories and they grew much stronger economically and militarily. They were exploiting the weaker states and annexing and merging were happening all the time. It was a situation of feudal lords having a hot contest in a power struggle for leadership, known by historians as 諸侯爭霸. The King of Zhou for this period, though calling himself “Son of Heaven”, 天子, had in fact become a nominal head whose orders and decrees did not exceed his dwindling domain. When Ping Wang 平王 died in 720 BC and Huan Wang 桓王 succeeded him, the situation worsened for the Zhou administration. Huan Wang wanted to restore his rights as King and relieved Duke of Chuang of his official title in the state of Zheng 鄭Zhuang Gong 莊公 defied instead by abstaining from paying annual homage 朝覲 to Huan Wang 桓王. Aided by feudal lords of Chen 陳, Cai 蔡 and Wei 衛, the King led an army onto the state of Zheng 鄭 to demand subordination. Zheng 鄭國 resisted with force and the King lost both the battle and his image as King of the lords. Therefore the leadership of the feudal lords did no longer rest with the King of Zhou but with whoever competent. Qi Huan Gong 齊桓公 was the first of the five who were able to achieve that status. He defeated a northern foreign threat from a tribe called Shanrong 山戎 and saved Wei 衛 and Xing 邢 from being overrun by other lords, thus achieving a reputation. He was assisted by a well-known minister named Guan Zhong 菅仲 who turned Qi 齊, a remote backward country in Shandong away from the central plain, into a superpower. In 651BC, Qi Huan Gong 齊桓公 held an interstate convention in Kuiqiu 葵丘, which was represented by Lu 魯, Song 宋, Wei 衛, Zheng 鄭, and even the King of Zhou “Son of Heaven” 周 天子. The rest of the historical “Five Super-lords” 春秋五霸 were Jin Wen Gong 晉文公, Song Xiang Gong 宋襄公, Qin Mu Gong 秦穆公 and Chu Zhuang Wang 楚莊王. The need for constant survival for the smaller states and the ambition to achieve leadership for the more powerful ones had produced one result regarding the customary qualification for a person to become an official of a state. This was true for this period as well as for the Warring States era. The requirement that someone must be a descendant of the feudal nobility or aristocracy gave way to the pragmatic need to manage a state with strategic objectives such as reforming from its weakness, allying with a more powerful state or to incorporate a weaker one to expand ones strength. To this end, state or local administration was open to all, including the common people, to the competent, wise, one with a wider vision, shrewd or harsh possibly but with results. This was why during this period, we had such a multitude of able administrators and strategists such as Guan Zhong 菅仲, Su Qin 蘇秦, Zhang Yi 張儀, Mao Sui 毛遂, Shang Yang 商鞅, Fan Li 范蠡, Wu Qi 吴起, Wu Yuan 伍員, Lu Bu-hui 呂不韋, to name just a few notable examples. This was also a time that state identity did not matter. People with substance could work for any state where their ability was recognized and appreciated and there was no shortage of precedents. There was a term 客 卿, which meant “guest ministers”, namely ministers or high officials who came from a foreign state and it was a common occurrence in those days. Shang Yang 商鞅 and Su Qin 蘇秦 were good examples. They found their fortunes in a foreign state, the former elevated to chief minister, and rejuvenated a backward country, Qin 秦, into a superpower; and the latter, becoming a joint minister of all the other six countries against the powerful Qin in his unsurpassed diplomatic feat known as “vertical axis” 合縱. Lords and princes had also a prevailing practice in those days to keep “guests” 食客 under their care, providing for food and lodging. Lords Xin- ling 信陵君, Chun-shen 春申君, and Meng-chang 孟嘗君, were the best- known princes who each had 3000 such guests. Related to this “guests” system, there arose a group called “shi” 士 or 俠士, which was different from the old meaning of 士 which was “officials”. These 俠士 were “guests” who had achieved a name and they were “free-lance” people loosely resembling to “knights” in the legend of King Arthur. Because their integrity and courage were recognized unreservedly by their masters, they were prepared to perform any difficult assignment given them, even to the death. Some of them, for the cause of their masters, became assassins and they were given a place even in the history book of Shi-ji 史記 by Sima Qian 司馬遷 under the chapter “Biography of Assassins” 剌客列傳. The four best known were Zun Zhu 尊諸, Yu Rang 豫讓, Jing Ke 荊軻, and Nie Zheng 聶政, each with a stunning story. Jing Ke 荊軻 of course was the best known as the one who attempted on Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇, gaining access as an envoy and died in the failed assassination. His story would be told at the end of the Warring States era. Learning in those eras was no longer a privilege of the nobility and ruling families who organized state institutions called 官學. There flourished civilian, independent private tutors 私學 (of which Kong Zi 孔子 of course was the most renowned in later dynasties and had long-lasting influence) who each had some specialty to their teachings and attracted students to them by word of mouth. As a result of this uninhibited learning, there were numerous schools of thought historically described as 百家爭鳴. Notable schools of thought were: Confucianism 儒家, Taoism 道家, Legalism 法家 Mo Zi 墨子, Zhong Zi 莊子, Sun Zi 孫子 etc. Kong Zi 孔子 (named Kong Qiu 孔丘) was son of a minister 大夫 in the State Lu 魯國 and his ancestorial bloodline was a king of the State of Song 宋. Because he was not the eldest son, he had no hereditary title but was able to make his way up the hierarchy through knowledge acquired from his father’s ex-colleagues and self-learning from archives accessible to him. He was never a high minister in Lu and being disillusioned, took to teaching students. He was a great admirer of Zhou Gong 周公 who lived about 500 years before him and was an advocate and conformist of Zhou rituals. He did not impose any discrimination on class in learning. His only differentiation was the desire and willingness to learn. His teaching on self- discipline and virtue cumulated in the ideological concept of “man of perfection”, Jun-zi, 君子. He said, “ A Jun-zi will not command respect if he is not firmly composed; nor will his learning consolidate. He will devote himself to his principles and be sincere.” When his students asked whether there was anything that could be held on for life, he replied, “Integrity 忠 and reciprocity恕.” By integrity he meant integrity to one’s principles but later rulers and scholars believed that he meant integrity to the king 忠君. On reciprocity, he said, “Do not do unto others, what you do not want them do unto you.” His teachings were collected by his disciples and followers into short, unrelated chapters under titles of four books, the “Great Learning”大學, “The Mean” 中庸, the “Analects” 論語 and “Meng Zi” 孟子, which became known as the “Four Books”四書, second only, in Chinese classics, to the Five Classics 五經 written in early Zhou. Lao Zi was contemporary to Kong Zi but about 10 years to his senior. He was only known as an ordinary official in charge of the archives of the State Temple. Before he disappeared in retirement he passed Hangu Pass 函 谷關 and left his work to the gate-keeper known as Guan Yin-zi 關尹子. This was the famous Daodejing 道德經, the main source of Taoism which, apart from being a philosophy, later turned into an indigenous Chinese religion 道教. The first known legalist 法家 should be Li Kui 李悝, the chief minister of Marquis Wen of Wei 魏文侯. His book, Classic of Law 法經 was the earliest known work on codified law. Shang Yang 商鞅 in the next era was one of its ardent readers. He was a minister of Qin Xiao Kong 秦孝公 who was king of Qin about 85 years before Qin Shi Huang’s 秦始皇 time. His reformation and codification of the law laid down the future success of Qin as a superpower state over the others. Towards the 6th centuries BC, two states Jin 晉 in the north of Huang He黄 河 and Chu 楚, in the Chang Jiang 長江 region had been fighting for leadership for over 100 years. Both countries felt the drain of resources and the people were tired and sick of war. There was then a truce leading to an agreement in “curtailing the army” 弭兵 (mi-bing), which happened in 546 BC, the first of its kind in that period. Fourteen states, except Qi 齊 in the east and Qin 秦 in the west, joined the convention and they regarded both Jin 晉 and Chu 楚 as the joint leaders, 晉楚共霸. At the same time, two countries south of Chang Jiang 長江 rose in strength. They were Wu 吳 and Yue 越. The rise of Wu 吳 lent a lot on the ability and tenacity of Wu Yuan 伍員 or Wu Zi-xu 伍子胥, an escapee from the state of Chu 楚. Yuan’s 員 father was a Chu 楚 minister and because of a factional struggle was killed by the king of Chu 楚王. Before he was executed the king made him write a letter to recall his sons to the capital under the pretence that he would then be released. Both sons knew their father’s letter was written under instruction but the elder son obliged, insisting that it was his duty to go. He was subsequently executed together with his father. Wu Yuan 伍員 thought escaping for vengeance at a later day was a better way. Wu Yuan 伍員 arrived at the capital of Wu吳through unspeakable hardship, begging for alms on the way. Through the introduction of an old friend he was noticed by the king of Wu吳王, Helu 闔閭 who appointed him his chief of staff 軍師. Because of Yuan’s 伍員 strategy, the Wu 吳 army scored numerous successes against Chu 楚 and sacked its capital at Qingdu 郢都 and Wu Yuan 伍員 exhumed the remains of the king of Chu 楚王 to fulfill his vengeance regarding his father’s death. Thereafter, Chu 楚 lost its status as a leader of the states. After his success in Chu, king of Wu吳, He-lu 闔閭 attacked Gou-jian 勾踐 , the king of the state of Yue 越王, and died in battle. His son Fu-chai 夫差 succeeded the throne and swore vengeance. He wore on the front of his chest a piece of leather on a string hanging from his neck, to remind him that he should be as tough and to persevere. He put a servant on guard at the entrance of his palace chamber and whenever he passed through, the servant would ask, “Fu-chai 夫差, have you forgotten about the vengeance of the late-king, your father? ”, to which he would reply, “No, I dare not!” After years of preparation, he defeated Yue 越 and brought back its king Gou-jian 勾踐 as his stable attendant. Gou-jian 勾踐 was released after three years of captivity during which he purposely lay on logs as bed and tasted a gall hanging above him before he slept, which was known as 臥薪 嘗膽. On returning to his country, he sought out a girl, Xi-shi 西施, of supreme beauty and sent her to Fu-chai 夫差 and with other valuable presents to his chief minister who subsequently never failed to put in good words for him. Fu-chai was greatly pleased and was head over heels in love with this newfound beauty. For twenty years Gou-jian 勾踐 reorganized and rearmed his country and finally, in 473 BC, defeated the state of Wu 吳國 and its king Fu-chai 夫差 was ordered to commit suicide. Thereafter Gou-jian’s 勾踐 influence expanded northwards into the central plain of China and was effectively the leader of the lords, 霸主. A few years later he died and that was also towards the end of the Spring and Autumn Era, 春秋時代結束. Eastern Zhou 東 周 — Warring States Era 戰 國 時 代 (476 – 221 BC) Throughout the middle and later parts of the Warring States period, except towards the end when Qin was conquering the rest of the countries, only seven states remained out of the hundreds of feudal lords established in the early Zhou 周 era and dominated the scene. Qin 秦 in the west, Han 韓, Zhou 趙 and Wei 魏 (which broke up the state of Jin 晉) in the north and central Huang He黄河 region, Yan 燕 in present day Dongbei 東北, Qi 齊 in Shandong 山東 and Chu 楚 in the Chang Jiang 長江 basin. In 438 BC, the king of Jin 晉died and was succeeded by Jin You Gong 晉幽 公who was weak and entirely unable to control the three chief ministers, Han 韓 Zhou 趙 and Wei 魏. The three families conspired together, split the country and divided it among themselves. Jin 晉 was only left with only two cities which were taken away in the end after about thirty years. This was historically described as 三家分晉. It was blatant usurping of the land and title of a feudal lord but the King of Zhou 周天子was unable to alter the circumstances. In the end he had to acknowledge the fact accompli and ratify the appointment of the three families as feudal lords. In this period, Wei 魏 was the first state which progressed substantially in its economy, politics and militia through reformation of its laws by legalist 法家 Li Kui 李悝. Both Marquis Wen 文侯 and Marquis Wu 武侯 of Wei 魏 were able to expand the boundaries of the country, overrunning the state of Zhong Sha中山國in the process. It continued west and encroached into the eastern border of Qin 秦 in Hexi 河西. With the famous strategist and general Wu Qi 吴起, it was able to stop the aggression of Qin in the west, defeated Qi 齊 in the east and Chu 楚 in the south. It became the leader 霸 主 of the warring states in the early period. Chu 楚 followed the example of Wei 魏 and was committed to reformation. The heredity rights of the nobles would not go beyond the third generation. Incompetent and unnecessary officials were dismissed and sinecure posts cancelled. Expenses were curtailed and military success greatly rewarded. In this fashion Chu was once revived from its insignificance. However, since the reformation was in direct conflict with the interests of the nobility, once Chu Dao Wang 楚悼王 was dead, the nobles rose in objection openly and killed Wu Qi 吳起. All the previous reforms were nullified. Seeing the results in Wei 魏 and Chu 楚, Qin 秦 was determined to push through its reformation as well. Qin Xiao Gong’s 秦孝公 vision was able to be realized when he found Shang Yang 商鞅. Shang Yang was a distant descendant of the nobility of Wei 魏 and when he was young, he was an inauspicious private accounting clerk in the house of the chief minister of Wei 魏, Gongsun Cuo 公孫痤. When Gongsun was seriously ill, his king visited him and asked for his advice as to who could possibly replace his position. Gongsun 公孫 suggested his house clerk Shang Yang 商鞅 but added that if the king could not use him, he should have him killed. The king of Wei, thinking that illness had got the better of Gongsun, dismissed the first idea as extraordinary and the second as even more absurd. After Gongsun Cuo 公孫痤 died, Shang Yang 商鞅 was unnoticed in Wei and he left for Qin where he was greatly appreciated by the king of Qin 秦, Xiao- gong 孝公 who appointed him chief minister. There he reformed the measuring standards 度量衡制 and the structure of the Qin government by centralizing the powers to the king and controlling feudal hereditary privileges. All reforms were codified by law and thus he laid the foundations of a superpower country which eventually, through the hands of Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇, conquered the rest of China within less than 90 years, vindicating the hidden foreboding of Gongsun Cuo 公孫痤. In 314 BC Qi Xuan Wang 齊宣王 attacked Yan 燕 and within 50 days broke its capital and this started the hostility between the two countries for over 3 decades. The King of Yan, Kuai 燕王噲 was killed. The other states were shaken by this outrageous act and threatened to join together against Qi 齊 and Qi 齊 retreated to its previous borders. In order to repay Qi 齊 with vengeance, in 284 BC, Yan Zhao Wang 燕昭王 allied with Han 韓, Zhao 趙, Wei 魏, Chu 楚 and Qin 秦 to attack Qi 齊. The Yan general Le Yi 樂毅 was an adept in warfare and he broke the capital of Qi 齊, Linzi 臨 淄. The king of Qi 齊 fled but was killed in Chu 楚. Five years later, Yan Zhao Wang 燕昭王 died and his son Wei Wang 惠王 took over. He replaced Le Yi 樂毅 with a hotheaded arrogant general. Qi 齊 was left with only two cities, Ju 莒 and Jimo 即墨, the rest were all lost to Yan 燕. In the besieged city of Jimo, the head of the family of Tian, Tian Dan 田單 took to himself the defence of the city. Under the pretence of negotiating for surrender, Tian Dan counter-attacked with five thousand soldiers who charged the hundred-thousand strong Yan 燕 garrison at night behind a thousand oxen all painted red and with burning oil tied to their tails and daggers fixed to their horns, known as “Formation of Fire-oxen ”火牛陣. The Yan soldiers were taken by surprise and countless died in the stampede. The entire army disintegrated overnight and Qi 齊 recovered all the grounds they had lost for the past five years. In 262 BC, because of the dispute over a territory in Han 韓, Qin 秦 and Zhao 趙 were at war. The General of Zhao 趙 was Lian Po 廉頗 who was advanced in age but a military man of great experience. He saw the strength of the Qin army and adopted a defensive strategy. He avoided direct confrontation and was waiting for the Qin army supplies to run out. The two sides ran into a stalemate as time dragged on and the Qin army had no advantage. The Qin General Bai Qi 白起 saw the situation and realized that the only way to win the war is by espionage. He caused rumours to be circulated in Zhao 趙 to the effect that: “ Lian Po 廉頗 is too old and the Qin army has no fear for him. If the Zhao army had replaced its general with the young Zhao Kuo 趙括, they would have already won the war.” The king of Zhao 趙, Xiao Cheng Wang 孝成王 heard the rumour and believed in it. He recalled Lian Po and sent Zhao Kuo 趙括 to replace him. As soon as Zhao arrived at the frontline, he countermanded Lian Po’s 廉頗 deployments, as a result, his main army was trapped by the Qin soldiers. When water and food was running out, the Zhao army attempted a breakout which failed and Zhou Kou died in the battle of Changping 長平. The Zhao army of four hundred thousand strong was entirely vanquished. The Qin army reached as far as the capital of Zhao, Han Dan 邯鄲 which was only relieved by the joint armies of the states of Chu 楚 and Wei 魏. Zhao Kuo 趙括 died a disgraced general who could only fight a war on paper and that was the origin of the idiom 紙上談兵. The story of Jing Ke 荊軻 was fully reported in Shi-ji 史記. Jing Ke 荊軻 was from the state of Wei 衛國. His ancestors were from the state of Qi 齊 國. He later traveled to Yan 燕 and there he was known as Jing Qing 荊卿. He was always reserved and composed, loved reading and the study of swordsmanship. He befriended reputable characters whenever he traveled though this did not stop him mixing with common people. In Yan 燕, he had a good friend who was a butcher of dogs in the market and a musician known for playing “zhu” 筑 by the name Gao Jian-li 高漸離. They often drank and sang in the market, entertaining themselves with no regard to others. At the time, Qin 秦 conquered Zhao 趙 and was approaching the border of Yan 燕. A prince of Yan called Dan 太子丹 was worried about the situation and he had a scheme to assassin the King of Qin 秦王 and asked Jing Ke 荊軻 to carry it out. Jing Ke 荊軻 obliged and said he needed three essential things. The first was something so valuable that the King of Qin 秦 王 would grant him audience, the second is a perfect dagger and the third a trustworthy assistant. A General Fan 樊於期 was residing as a guest of Prince Dan 太子丹 in Yan 燕 and he was an escapee from Qin 秦, being sought after by the King of Qin with a price of gold on his head. Jing Ke’s 荊軻 plan was to borrow the head of General Fan 樊將軍 so that the King of Qin 秦王 would be glad to grant him audience. He visited General Fan 樊將軍 and explained the scheme to him. Fan 樊將軍 was delighted to learn this plan to assassin King of Qin and instantly committed suicide. Next, Prince Dan 太 子丹 secured a fine dagger and dipped it in poison. Anyone touched by this dagger died instantly. Jing Ke 荊軻 now waited for a companion to assist him in his task in Qin, but this friend was late in arriving. Prince Dan 太子 丹 was worried that Jing Ke 荊軻 might change his mind and offered another young man to take his place. Jing Ke 荊軻 could not refuse and they set off from the border of Yan 燕 by River Yi 易水. It was a gloomy morning and those who were close to Prince Dan 太子丹 and knew about the plot came to see them off. Gao Jian-li 高漸離was one of them and he played his “zhu” 筑 in a melancholy tune. The people all wore white (mourning attire) and Jing Ke 荊軻 sang his parting song: “The wind is whistling… 風 蕭 蕭 兮, And River Yi is freezing. 易 水 寒 。 A warrior is now leaving… 壯 士 一 去 兮, Never would he be returning.” 不 復 返 。 And the party wept while Jing Ke 荊軻 and his entourage crossed the river to go into Qin. When King of Qin 秦王 heard of this envoy arriving his capital from Yan 燕, he was glad and received Jing Ke 荊軻 in pomp. Jing Ke 荊軻 was holding a casket containing the head of General Fan 樊將軍 and his attaché Qin Wu-yang 秦舞陽 was holding a map of Yan 燕 when they approached the King. Following Jing Ke, his attaché Wu-yang trembled as he advanced and colour drained from his face. Jing Ke 荊軻 looked back at him, smiled and said, “This northern uneducated young man has never seen the King and he is frightened. Would your Majesty bear with him and let him finish his task.” The King asked the map to be shown to him and Jing Ke 荊軻 presented it to him. When the map was fully unrolled, the dagger appeared. Jing Ke 荊軻 with one hand holding a sleeve of the King and with the other snatched the dagger to stab him. The King jumped up in a start and tore his sleeve. He tried to draw his sword but it was too long and there was no time, so he dodged around the palace pillar. All the ministers present were unarmed and the imperial guards were too far away to help. The ministers shouted, “King, sword to your back! 王負劍!” The King realized and pushed his sword to his back and he drew it over his shoulder. He struck Jing Ke 荊軻 and disabled him. Jing Ke 荊軻 threw his dagger at the King but only hit the pillar. He sat against a pillar and laughed, saying, “The reason why I failed is that I wanted to hold you hostage, forcing you to pledge the return of all your ill-gotten land, as a reward to repay my master.” The guards arrived by this time and they killed Jing Ke 荊軻. In 256BC, Qin 秦 overran the small domain of the Zhou 周 and terminated its existence physically, though the King of Zhou 周天子 was only a nominal figurehead without power since Zhou Ping Wang 周平王 for the entire Eastern Zhou history of 514 years. In 247 BC, Ying Zheng 贏政 took the throne as a young king of Qin (later founded the Qin Dynasty 秦朝 and known as Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇). In 229 BC he conquered Zhao 趙, Wei 魏, Han 韓, Yan 燕, and Chu 楚. Eight years later, Qi 齊 was the only country standing against Qin 秦 and it surrendered without any serious fighting in 221 BC, which marked the unification of China again under one empire. Events in other parts of the World during comparative period (770 BC - 221 BC) BC 753 Rome founded (traditional date) 722 End of Kingdom of Israel 689 Assyrians destroyed Babylon 660 Byzantium founded 563 Prince Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) born 559 Persian Empire founded 521 Darius I ruled Persia 509 Roman Republic founded (traditional date) 490 Athenians defeated Persians at Marathon 480 Battle of Thermopylae, Battle of Salamis 336 Alexander the Great, King of Macedonia 323 Alexander died at Babylon 264 First Roman Punic War Chapter Four Qin & Han Qin 秦 (221 BC — 206 BC ) – Western Han 西 漢 (206 BC— 8 AD) — Xin 新 (9 AD —23 AD) — Eastern Han 東 漢 (25 AD—220 AD) Qin 秦 (221 BC — 206 BC) With the demise of the Zhou Dynasty 周朝 (256 BC) and the fall of the other Warring States (229-221 BC), Qin’s conquest of China was complete. It is an irony in history that it took over 20 years for Qin Wang Zheng 秦王 政 to conquer the rest of China from his barren homelands in the east between the Yellow River (Huang He黄河) and the Chang Jiang 長江 and build a huge empire in the process, but lesser time for it to fall apart. Despite its short-lived span as compared with other sustainable dynasties, its achievements and effects on China’s history were immense. Having seen the disconcertion of feudal lords in Zhou’s 周 history, Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 was not to commit the same error again. The segregation of China into feudal states was the main reason for Zhou’s decline and that would not be repeated. He divided China into 36 prefectures 郡 which would be subdivided into districts 縣; and all local officials were responsible direct to the central government. Officials, central or local alike, were appointed and relieved by the Emperor 皇帝. The central government or Court 朝庭 was administered by the prime minister 丞相, minister for military affairs 太尉, and minister for archives and supervisory (御史大夫); and under them were high officials 卿, in charge of matters such as: palace security 郎中令, palace garrison 衛尉, home and foreign affairs 典客, ancestry worship rituals 奉常, ancestry records 宗正, horses and carriages 太僕 etc. There was no more hereditary tenures or privileges. The law of the previous states were all abolished and replaced by one law of the empire and that would be applicable to all people, no more distinction in classes. Nationwide standardization was promulgated in measures and weights, coinage, the width of carriage axles, highways and even colour code for dresses. The national colour was white. The local government structure of Qin was known as “prefecture/district system” 郡縣制. Prefecture 郡 was headed by the prefect 郡守, assistant prefect 尉 and supervisor 監 who was responsible direct to the minister of supervision in the central government. Under the prefecture was district 縣 — village 鄉 —neighbourhood 里. And the unit for law enforcement at the village level was called 亭 “pavilion”. Lu Bu-wei 呂 不 韋 The history of the early Qin Empire cannot be complete without mentioning the first prime minister Lu Bu-wei 呂不韋 (?290-235BC). In about 265 BC Lu was a merchant in the state of Zhao 趙. He noticed a young man who was not particularly well dressed but always had a few bodyguards with him wherever he went in the capital Han Dan 邯鄲. He made enquiries and found that he was in fact Zi-chu 子楚, a prince of Qin 秦 sent to Zhao 趙 as a nominated hostage. Lu 呂 considered him a “rare commodity” 奇貨可居. He offered to be his friend and mentor and revealed to him his plans. The crown prince of Qin had a favourite consort, Lady Huayang 華陽夫人, but she had no son. If Zi-chu 子楚 could be adopted as her son, Zi-zho could become the crown prince. Lu 呂 therefore spent his fortune to make Zi-zho socially well-known in Zhao 趙 and on the other hand through the help of a courtier, approached Lady Huayang 華陽夫人 and said, “You must think of your future. When you become old and your beauty fades, without a child, you will fall into disfavour. If you adopt Zi-chu 子楚 as your own son, and make him a crown prince, he would become king eventually. This is your best future protection.” Lady Huayang 華陽夫人 realizing the advantage in this arrangement, skillfully presented the idea to the crown prince, Lord Anguo 安國君. Lord Anguo 安國君 agreed to the arrangement and secretly decided to appoint Zi-chu 子楚 as his heir. When Qin 秦 invaded Zhao趙 and attacked its capital Handan, Zi-chu 子楚was in great personal danger. Lu Bu-wei 呂不 韋bribed the defending officers and Zi-chu 子楚was secretly smuggled across the front line and reached the Qin camp, from where he safely returned to Qin 秦. Earlier on, Lu Bu-wei 呂不韋 had a beautiful dancing girl known as Zhao Ji 趙姬 in his household and one day when Zi-chu 子楚 was guest at his house, Zi-chu 子楚 took a fond interest of her and asked Lu 呂 if he could give her to him. Lu was secretly very furious since she was his favourite and in fact just pregnant by him. However, since he had invested his entire fortune on Zi-chu 子楚, he might as well forsake Zhao Ji 趙姬 to safeguard his interest. Both Lu Bu-wei 呂不韋 and Zhao Ji 趙姬 kept the fact of the pregnancy from Zi-zho. At maternity, a son was born and he was Ying Zheng 嬴政, (later Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇). When Zhao Wang 昭王 died, Lord Anguo 安國君 became king and Lady Huayang 華陽夫人 was appointed queen, with Zi-chu 子楚 as crown prince. The new king, Xiao-wen Wang 孝文王, ruled only for one year and he died. Zi-chu 子楚 as crown prince succeeded him and was known as Zhuang Xiang Wang 莊襄王. Lu Bu-wei 呂不韋 became the prime minister. Zhuang Xiang Wang 莊襄王 was on the throne for three years and died, leaving an infant heir Zheng 政 at the age of thirteen. Lu 呂 became regent and head of government. It was reported in Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 Shi-ji 史記 that Lu Bu-wei 呂不韋 rekindled an affair with the widowed queen (his former dancing girl and concubine, Zhao Ji 趙姬) during this time but was fearful of the situation as time went on. He introduced a man called Lao Ai 嫪毐 to the queen so that he could distance himself. This Lao Ai 嫪毐had a special feature in that he had an enormous male organ. Lu 呂and the queen arranged Lao to be poised as a eunuch so that he could have access to the queen’s palace. The queen was utterly contented with Lao Ai and this licentious relationship continued, as a result of which, two sons were born by the queen in secret. When Ying Zheng 嬴政 was 22, a secret informant revealed that Lao Ai 嫪 毐 was not a eunuch and was having a scanduous affair with the king’s mother. King Ying Zheng 嬴政 had all persons involved investigated and was fully aware of the matter. Lao Ai 嫪毐, his sons and clansmen were all executed and the king’s mother was banished from the capital. Lu Bu-wei 呂 不韋 was implicated in this affair and was forced to resign as prime minister. Because of his meritorious service performed for the late king, Lu was only exiled to his fief in Henan 河南. A year later, the king, Ying Zheng 嬴政, fearful that Lu Bu-wei 呂不韋 might rebel, ordered him to be further exiled to Su 蜀. Lu understood that he might be executed in the end, committed suicide. The Reign of Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 Once in charge of a new era for a vast empire, Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 began his building frenzy, first his underground mausoleum which had been underway for some time but now at a grander scale, then a whole palace complex covering over a thousand square miles named E Fang Gong 阿房 宮, (which Xiang Yu 項羽 burnt down when he sacked Xianyang 咸陽 and the fire took 3 months to die down) and the Great Wall together with other projects such as highways and canals. In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 ordered an expedition against the northern people, Xiongnu匈奴 who were constantly troubling the northern border from today’s Mongolia. After recovering a large region in the Yellow River “loop” 河套 area, Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 commenced the project of linking up the old walls of the Qin 秦, Yan 燕 and Zhao 趙 era into a long wall, now known as the Great Wall of China萬里長城. It took 300,000 labourers, prisoners and workmen of all kinds to complete in twelve years. It served as a barrier against the Xiongnu匈奴 and as a military conduit for transportation and beacon relay system between the west from Lintao 臨洮 to Liaodong 遼東 in the east. In the 8th year of Shi Huang’s 始 皇 reign, 213 BC, a scholar criticized the system of central government and the abolition of the feudal states. The chief minister Li Si 丞相李斯 suggested a series of measures to stifle the criticisms, including the forbiddance of possessing books of classics in the population; and Qin Shi-huang approved them. They included the following: books of historical records, with the exception of “History of Qin” 秦紀, should all be burnt. Classics such as “Classic of Odes” 詩經 and “Classic of Writings”書經 should be kept by the imperial library and apart from those, all books should be handed over by the people and burnt at prefecture level. To privately discuss about classics would be punishable by death. To criticize present measures by comparing with old precedents would be punishable by death for the whole family. Books on medicine, oracles and agriculture were not within the ambit of destruction. The tuition of law could only be conducted by government officials. The destruction of books therefore was carried out on a national scale. In the 9th year of Shi Huang’s 始皇 reign, those people who claimed to possess occult art 方士, failed to produce an immortal potion 仙藥 as ordered by Qin Shi-huang; and they fled for fear of punishment, saying that the failure was due to the unworthiness of the master, not to their incompetence. This caused widespread discussion among the intellectuals. Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 was greatly displeased and asked Li Si 李斯 to conduct an inquiry into the matter. Li, being always in the bad books of the intellectuals, took this opportunity to carry out his purge of the scholars who were outspoken in the criticism of the government. As a result of this “witch-hunt” inquisition, over 400 scholars were implicated and they were executed in the capital and buried. This incident, together with the burning of books was invariably cited as an exemplar of the tyrannical rule of the Qin regime, and coined by historians as 焚書坑儒. However, the search for elixia did not stop. One Xu Fu 徐福 claimed that there were three fairy islands in the sea to the east, where medicine for immortality (or elixia) 仙丹 could be sought. In 210 BC, he was equipped by Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 to set sail with 3000 young boys and girls to these fairy islands. Xu Fu reached Honshu island 本州 of Japan and stayed there without returning. The tomb of Xu Fu still remains today in Hege mountain 和歌山 and a temple dedicated to him called Xufu Gong 徐福宮 is still in Japan. In order to control the former aristocracy of the warring states, they together with thousands of rich families were all forced to move to the capital Xianyang 咸陽. All weapons of the conquered states and of the civilians were confiscated and melt down. It was said that the metal was used to cast twelve warrior statutes and put in the capital for display. During Qin Shi Huang’s 秦始皇 reign of 12 years, he made a total of 5 tours of his empire. It involved tens of thousands of men and soldiers and the building of roads and numerous temporary palaces 行宮 on the way. The tours were mainly to old Yan 燕 and Qi 齊 in the east and Chu 楚 in the south of the country. These places were far off from Xianyang 咸陽 and the old influences of the warring states were still there, so it had become necessary to consolidate his rule by a show of force on a grand scale. In the last tour, he reached Chang Jiang 長江 and during his return, he died on the way near Shaqiu 沙丘. Before dying he made a will to recall his eldest son Fu-su 扶蘇 from the north to the capital to succeed him. However, his chief eunuch Zhao Gao 趙高 conspired with the prime minister Li Shi 李斯 and they had other plans. They destroyed the will of Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 and forged a new one, passing the throne to the youngest son Hu-hai 胡亥. At the same time they dispatched a forged decree to Fu-su 扶蘇 asking him to commit suicide. The two conspirators kept the death of Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 a secret and the news was not announced until they reached the capital. The reason for the plot was that Fu Su was a more capable prince and was never in good terms with Zhao Gao. The second prince was of questionable intelligence and much easier to manipulate. On receiving the forged decree, Fu Su was in complete despair but he had no choice and he killed himself. The second son succeeded to the throne, known as Qin Ershi 秦二世 (namely, Qin II). The End of Qin Dynasty The Second Emperor of Qin 秦二世 had nothing like his father. He left the entire court to the hands of Zhao Gao 趙高 and devoted himself to pleasures. At that time, because of the harsh laws and the common practice to construct public works by forced labour, the entire country was in turmoil. Thieves and rebels were rife. A rebel army was approaching the capital and Hu-hai 胡亥 was kept in the dark by Zhao Gao. When he knew the news could not be contained, Zhao Gao 趙高 and his brother Zhao Cheng 趙成, commander of the imperial guards, under the pretence of a security search, entered the residential palace of the emperor and forced him to commit suicide. That was the third year of Hu-hai’s 胡亥 reign. Zhao 趙高 appointed Hu-hai’s nephew Zi-ying 子嬰 as king of Qin 秦王. (note: not Emperor of Qin Dynasty anymore,). Within less than one year, Liu Bang 劉邦 entered Xianyang 咸陽 and Zi-ying 子嬰 surrendered, ending officially the rule of the Qin Empire 秦朝 for only 15 years in 206 BC. Western Han 西 漢 (206 BC— 8 AD) Three years before the end of Qin, in 209 BC, the country was already on the verge of a crisis. A group of 900 odd forced workers were on the way to Yuyang 漁陽 on a certain schedule under the charge of two foremen Chen Sheng 陳勝 and Wu Guang 吴廣. At a village called Daze大澤鄉, they were held up by a storm and the roads were washed away. There were some deserters in the confusion as well. The Qin law 秦法 was that if a date for reporting was missed, the penalty was death 失期當斬. And for the foreman in charge, he must deliver the exact number of men. Therefore, if one had deserters on the way, either one were to capture somebody else in their place or the penalty again was death for short delivery. Chen and Wu knew they could never make up the lost days even if they made up the lost men. In this hopeless situation, they decided to make a break for it. They overran a nearby local garrison and grabbed the weapons and a rebellion was afoot. Within a short time the rebellious people gathered to become a hundred thousand strong. Chen Sheng proclaimed himself king 陳勝王. They wreaked havoc to the nearby regions for two years with initial success and though they lost in the end, an example was set and Qin’s rule was on a downward slippery slope. In response to Chen Sheng 陳勝, Xiang Liang 項梁 and Xiang Yu 項羽 killed their city mayor at Huiji 會稽, took over the garrison and rose to rebellion. It attracted immediately several thousand followers. The Xiang family 項家 were descendants of a general of the state of Chu 楚 and were respected by the people in the area. It was recorded in Shi-ji 史記 that when Xiang Yu 項羽 was young, he saw the royal procession of Qin Shi Huang 秦始皇 and said, “He can be taken and replaced 彼可取而代之”. Xiang Liang 項梁, his uncle, standing by his side, silenced him saying, “That, if overheard can cost the life of your whole family.” Liu Bang 劉邦, originally a petty “pavilion officer” 亭長, with a group of prisoners under his charge, joined the Xiang family 項家 uprising. Xiang 項 and Liu 劉 thereafter became the two main forces toppling the Qin empire. Other descendants of the warring states nobility also separately rose in rebellion and there was a whole country in widespread upheaval. Xinag Yu made a rendezvous with the armies of the other states at Julu 鉅 鹿 near Handan 邯鄲 in present day Hebei. Xiang Yu 項羽 crossed Zhang River 漳水 and ordered his soldiers to sink their boats and break all cooking utensils, 破釜沉舟 showing the determination not to return. They advanced with only three days ration. There they faced the Qin army of two hundred thousand strong. The army of all the other nobles was in two minds and they stayed behind their fortifications 壁 and vantage points to watch the situation 從壁上觀. Xiang Yu 項羽 had no reservation. He attacked the Qin 秦 army with his Chu 楚 soldiers and fought ferociously in nine encounters, in the end routing them. The nobles were terrified by the way the battle was fought and afterwards, when there was a celebration inside the tent of Xiang Yu 項羽, they could only kneel past and could not bring themselves to look up at the head table. Liu Bang 劉邦 on the other hand attacked Hangu Pass 函谷關, overwhelmed it and proceeded north-east to Xianyang 咸陽 via Wu Pass 武 關. Liu Bang 劉邦 stationed near the capital at Bashang 霸上 and the teenaged “Emperor” Zi Ying 子嬰 surrendered Xianyang 咸陽 without a fight. Xiang Yu 項羽 had more difficult battles on the way and came late to Xian Yang after Liu Bang 劉邦. They had a deal before that whoever came to Xianyang 咸陽 first should be the king of Hanzhong 漢中王. Xiang Yu 項 羽 was disappointed, he set the palaces on fire and withdrew his army. It was recorded that the fire took three months to burn out. Xiang Yu appointed those nobles in power to feudal lords and called himself “Super- king of Chu” 楚霸王 and Liu Bong was appointed king of Han, 漢王. The Chu 楚 and Han 漢 camps were in intermittent wars and truces. At the time Liu Bang 劉邦 had a superb staff of counselors such as Zhang Liang 張 良, Xiao He 簫何, and marshal general such as Han Xin 韓信. In 202 BC, the Han army beleaguered the Chu army at Gaixia 垓下 and though Xiang Yu 項羽 broke out with scores of horsemen, he killed himself by the Wu Jiang 烏江 with the Han soldiers hot at his heels. After the death of Xiang Yu, Chu 楚 was pacified and Liu Bang 劉邦 proclaimed himself Emperor “Huang Di” 皇帝, known as Han Gao Zhu 漢 高祖. The first capital was at Luoyang 洛陽 and it was later changed to Chang’an 長安. At first there were seven kings or feudal lords appointed, who were either generals or former nobles in power, but eventually they were all removed. The Qin system of prefectures and districts was followed but at the same time the feudal system was restored with more appointments of the royal clansmen to lords. It was reasoned by Liu Bang 劉 邦 that the swift disintegration of Qin was due to the lack of support by feudal lords. While abolishing the complicated and harsh Qin laws, a country could not be governed without any legal system. The Han laws were too simple at the beginning, historically known as the “Covenant of the Three Chapters” 約法 三章. It was later expanded to six and then to nine chapters. After Liu Bang 劉邦 died, his Queen, Lu Hou 呂后 exposed her sway. Her son Hui Di 惠帝 became Emperor but only ruled passively for 7 years and died. His son Shao Di 少帝 was only a child who never ruled, and Lu Hou 呂后 was fully in charge of court affairs since then. She appointed her Lu 呂 clans to feudal lords and to key positions in court. The Liu 劉 clansmen and whoever not in her favour were mercilessly persecuted. However, when Lu Hou 呂后 died, her network of power crumpled instantly and the Lus 呂氏 were wiped out by the Lius 劉氏. Liu Heng 劉恆 succeeded to the throne and he was known as Wen Di 文帝. Together with his successor Jing Di 景帝, their reigns were praised as an era of peace and order, known as “文景之治”. In 141 BC, Jing Di 景帝 died and was succeeded by Wu Di 武帝, Liu Che 劉徹. The Wen-Jing 文景 era was one of peace and sufficiency and in Wu Di’s reign, Han became prosperous and powerful and reached the high watermark of the Dynasty. Militarily, Han 漢 was able to expel the Xiong- nu 匈奴 in the north (general Wei Qing 衛青 was the best known), incorporated Korea 朝鮮 in the east as its protectorate, expanded into Tuqueh 突厥 territory in the west and Wu Di’s envoy Zhang Qian 張騫 reached the “western territories” 西域, which is today’s Afghanistan and Turkestan called 大月氏 and 烏孫國 and established diplomatic relationship with them (115 BC). China’s “Silk Road” was established at that time, starting from Dunhuang 敦隍 in “Xinjiang” “新彊”, passing through “Tarim Basin” 塔里木盆地, “Afghanistan” 大月氏, into Mesopotamia 息安, “Turkey” 支條 and Macedonia 羅馬. [author’s note: all names of places in quotation marks “…..” are today’s names for ease of reference] Learning from the history of early Han, it was recognized that the numerous internal strives were caused by feudal warlords and militia in the government structure. In Wu Di’s time therefore, only scholars were allowed in the government 士人政府, from high officials 公卿 of the central government in court to local district magistrates 縣令. An examination and nomination system 貢舉制 was used to recruit the right persons into the government system. This set the precedent that common people were recruited for the administration instead of nobles and military commanders. Wu Di 武帝 adopted the policies of minister Dong Zhong-shu 董仲舒, namely, “solely promote Confucianism and suppress all other schools of thought”, 獨尊儒術, 罷黜百家. Officials who had special knowledge on literature and history were employed and known as “doctorate officials” 博 士官. They specialized in the Five Classics of : Classic of Odes 詩經, Classic of Writings 書經, Yi-jing 易經, Li-ji 禮記 and Spring and Autumn Annals春秋 and also known as “Doctors of the Five Classics” 五經博士. Shi-ji 史記 was written by Sima Qian 司馬遷 in about 104 BC in the reign of Wu Di 武帝and it became the best historical record available in Han and at all times in China. Its format was followed by all later works of official history. Wu Di 武帝 was on the throne for 54 years and it was the longest reign (141-87 BC) in Han dynasty and one of the best in ancient China. Xin Dynasty 新 朝 (9 –23) The 12th Emperor of Han, Ping Di 平帝 was a child-king at the age of nine. He was under the regency of Wang Mang 王莽, a chief minister of the imperial in-laws 外戚 who rose from the junior ranks. Five years later Wang poisoned Ping Di 平帝 and nominated a two-year old Liu Ying 劉嬰 as crown prince. Wang Mang 王莽 called himself “ Emperor in Regency” 攝皇帝 and then “Acting Emperor” 假皇帝. Three years later in 9 AD, he made himself Emperor 皇帝 and changed the dynasty to Xin 新. The throne was usurped and Han Dynasty lasted 214 years. Historians called that Western Han 西漢, to distinguish a later revival called Eastern Han 東漢. Eight years into the reign of Wang Mang, there was flooding and famine in the Chang Jiang 長江 region. From the mountain of Lulin 綠林, an uprising arose against the government and they called themselves the “Army of Lu- lin”, 綠林軍. A year later, in Shandong 山東 in the east, famine prompted an uprising called “Army of Red-eyebrows” 赤眉軍 because all the soldiers painted their eyebrows red. These two uprisings and together with Xiongnu 匈奴 in the north caused the downfall of this new dynasty. Liu Xiu 劉秀 was a descendant of the Han royal family and his army took Chang’an 長安, killed Wang Mang 王莽 and ended this short-lived Dynasty of Xin 新 朝 in its 15th year. Eastern Han 東 漢 (25 —220 ) Liu Xiu 劉秀 recovered Luoyang 洛陽 and re-established it as the new capital of the revived Han Empire. Because it was east of the old capital of Chang’an 長安, therefore this dynasty was historically known as Eastern Han 東漢 and Liu Xiu was known as Guang Wu Di 光武帝. Buddhism Via the Silk Road, Buddhism and its literature already found its way into China towards the end of the Western Han era. In Eastern Han, the second Emperor, Ming Di 明帝 (64 AD) officially sent a delegation to India 天竺 for Buddhism scripture and classics. As a result, Buddhist monks were received by Ming Di and given a temple 鴻臚寺 and part of a palace complex to settle down and translate Buddhist classics. The finished work of “42-Chapter Classic” 四十二章經 is the earliest translation of Buddhist classics in China. Invention of Paper Cai Lun 蔡倫 was an eunuch working in the secretarial office in court. He used tree barks, hemp, waste clothe and old fish nets to manufacture paper and presented the final product to the Emperor He Di 和帝 in 105AD. Thereafter, it was widely used and people called it “Marquis Cai’s paper” 蔡侯紙. Nowadays we call the best quality writing paper for ink “xuan” 宣 紙 paper, which was a historical name given to paper produced in Xuanzhou 宣州. The use of paper had greatly promoted the widespread use of books, thus improving the storage of information and the spreading of civilization. For over 6 centuries after Cai’s invention, paper was only produced in China despite its continuous export to other Asian and Arabian countries. The process of paper-making was kept an industrial secret, though the intricate nature of the different procedures was a real barrier to a foreign manufacturer. It was only until 750 AD, in the Tang dynasty 唐朝, when some of the Chinese paper workers were captured by the Arabians in war that the secret was revealed to the outside world. Baghdad adopted the secretive processes and a paper industry sprang up. From there the technique of paper-making was further transferred to the rest of Europe but it was almost one millennium after Cai Lun’s 蔡倫 invention in China. In the reign of Shun Di 順帝, (132 AD), scientist Zhang Heng 張衡 invented an instrument to detect earthquakes in China called 地動儀. It could detect the force of the quake and its direction, first of its kind in the world. The next similar instrument was installed in the 13th century in Persia, 1000 years after this Chinese invention. In-laws and Eunuchs He-Di 和帝 came to the throne as a child and her mother, Queen Mother Dou 竇太后 was in fact ruling. Her brother Dou Xian 竇憲 was promoted to marshall general after expelling the northern Xiong-nu and became most influencial in court. He was found scheming for a coup to oust the Emperor. He Di 和帝 (who was only fourteen at the time) together with his confidant, eunuch Zheng Zhong 鄭眾, stopped the plot by arresting all the key accomplices covertly at the same time. Dou Xian 竇憲 was given the grace to commit suicide. With Dou Xian 竇憲 and his clansmen removed, the eunuchs’ power accerlerated in Court. This opened the struggle between the imperial in-laws and the eunuchs 戚宦相爭 and later factional purges 黨錮 之禍, which caused the Eastern Han government rotten to the heart. National university students gathered at the palace to support their “factional” leaders who were openly criticizing the eunuchs and court politics often resulted in mass arrests, imprisonment and executions. Honest ministers were either dead or imprisoned and when the crisis of the Yellow-scarf Bandits 黄巾賊 arose, the government was not in a position to control. That was the beginning of the end of the Eastern Han Empire. Events in other parts of World in comparative period (221 BC—220 AD) BC 206 Scipio defeated the Carthaginians 200 Second Macedonian War 184 Sunga Dynasty founded in India 183 Hannibal died by suicide 149 Romans destroyed Carthage 82 Sulla became dictator of Rome 54 Second invasion of Britain by Romans 51 Caesar conquered Gaul, Cleopatra ruled Egypt 45 Caesar became dictator of Rome 42 Caesar assassinated 23 Augustus, Emperor of Rome 5 Probable birth of Jesus of Nazareth AD 30 Death of Jesus 43 Romans invaded Britain, London founded 64 Fire destroyed Rom, attributed to Nero 77 Roman conquest of Britains to 122 Construction of Hadrian wall in Britain 166 M. Aurelius, Roman Emperor sent gifts to China Chapter Five Three Kingdoms Era, Wei, Jin and The South & North Dynasties Three Kingdoms Era 三 國 ( 220 - 280) —Wei 魏 (220 – 265) — Western Jin 西 晉 (265 – 316) — Eastern Jin 東 晉 (316 – 420) —South Dynasty 南 朝 (420 – 589) —North Dynasty 北 朝 (439 – 581) Three Kingdoms Era 三 國 ( 220 - 280) Towards the end of the Eastern Han 東漢 era, the central government was falling apart. Eunuchs were exercising powers in the court and the Emperor Ling Di 靈帝 even consented that official posts including junior ministers and governors of prefectures could be awarded to the highest bidder. Local officials were entirely corrupt and only working for their private interests. When the Yellow-scarf 黄巾 uprising broke out in different prefectures, the central government had no measures to deal with it and the matter was left entirely to the hands of the local governors. As a result, warlords developed with apparent autonomy and that hastened the demise of the Han Empire. Zhang Jiao 張角 was a person who taught people witchcraft and had followers in Hebei 河北, Shanxi 山西, Hubei 湖北 and Sichuan 四川. In 184 he declared an uprising against the Empire at Julu 鉅鹿 in Hebei 河北. This was echoed by his followers and the central plain was again in turmoil for more than two decades. They all wore a yellow headband to identify themselves and so they were named as “Yellow-scarf Bandits” 黄巾賊 by the government. Some recent historians regard them us a peasantry uprising against suppression and tyranny and they were called “Yellow -scarf Army” 黄巾軍. Cao Cao曹操 was a junior officer at the start (in charge of a small district of the capital) but in the crisis, he gathered a group of people with different ambitions to fight the Yellow-scarves 黄巾 and accumulated in the course of time a powerful army. Dong Zhuo 董卓, in answering to the Emperor’s request to clear out the dominating eunuchs in Court, who were planning a coup, led an army into Luoyang 洛陽, slaughtered all eunuchs in Court and remained there with the Emperor under his control. Most of the governors of other prefectures were against this arrogant Dong Zhuo, they formed an allied army and defeated him. After that Cao Cao 曹操 became the most influential warlord in the capital. He coerced the Emperor Xian Di 獻帝 to move from the capital Luoyang 洛陽 to Xuchang 許昌, about 150 Km to the southeast, which became his base. At the time, Yuan Shao 袁紹, a descendant of Han high officials for three generations 三代公卿, was the most powerful warlord in Hebei 河北 and he moved south attempting to unseat Cao Cao 曹操 from his position of usurping the power of the Emperor and hijacking the Han administration. Yuan’s large army crossed Huang He 黄河 from Hebei 河北 but left his main supplies on the north bank at Wuchao 烏巢. His army encamped at Guandu 官渡 which was about 150 Km east of Luoyang 洛陽. In 200, Cao Cao defeated the much larger army of Yuan Shao 袁紹 at Guandu 官渡之 戰, by attacking and burning his supplies in the rear on the opposite bank. After that decisive battle, Cao 曹 became the only dominating force in northern China. Liu Bei 劉備 was a distant descendant of the Han royal family. During the Yellow-scarf 黄巾 uprising, he gathered a small private force and at one time joined Cao Cao 曹操 in suppressing this peasantry rebellion. Later he gained part of Jingzhou 荊州 Prefecture, south of Chang Jiang 長江 as a foothold and expanded into Sichuan 四川. Sun Qian, 孫權 another warlord in the south was based in the lower Chang Jiang 長江 basin. In 208, Cao Cao 曹操 moved his army of two hundred thousand south in an attempt to conquer the rest of China with only two major contestants remaining. Liu Bei, 劉備 being the one with the least resources, reckoned that his best chance was to ally with Sun Qian 孫乾 to oppose Cao Cao 曹操. His counselor and confidant Zhuge Liang 諸葛亮 successfully convinced Sun Qian that their survival depended on joining forces. Together they met the Cao 曹 army and navy, which were encamped on the north bank of Chang Jiang 長江 near Wuhan 武漢 in present day Hubei 湖北. Red Cliff 赤壁 was on the south bank. Another version was that Red Cliff should be near Puji 蒲圻 which was further upstream about 120 Km to the south-west of Wuhan 武漢 (in those days known as Xiakou 夏口). In order to make the warships steadier for the soldiers and horses on board during mooring, Cao 曹 was given the idea to link up the ships by iron chains, which he did. One night, under the false impression that he was receiving a large fleet commanded by a deflecting general, Huang Gai黄蓋, of the enemy across the river, Cao opened the water-gate to let them in. In no time when the “would-be” deflectors were inside, fire broke out from those ships i |